ḤAQ AL-NĀS: IRTIBĀṬ MUTAQĀBIL ḤUQŪQ MARDUM WA AKHLĀQ ISLĀMĪ [THE RIGHTS OF PEOPLE: THE INTERCONNECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND ISLAMIC ETHICS]. By Ayatollah Mazaheri. Tehran, Iran: Al-Zahra Cultural Studies Institute. 2020. Pp. 349. Paper. 720,000 IRR.
Research and scholarly inquiry into the subject of “the rights of people” (Huquq al-Nās) has long been a prevalent topic among scholars across various disciplines in the humanities and Islamic studies. However, this work distinguishes itself by drawing upon 150 verses from the Quran and approximately 430 narrations from the infallible Imams, with a central focus on the rights of people.
This study is the result of ethical teachings by the jurist and ethicist Ayatollah Mazaheri, organized into six chapters. In the first chapter, the rights of people are defined as the mutual rights individuals have toward one another. From an Islamic perspective, rights are categorized into three types: the rights of the self, the rights of the Creator, and the rights of creations. The rights of creations are further subdivided into the rights of nature and the environment, the rights of animals, and the rights of people. Among the most significant rights of the self is the pursuit of spiritual growth toward God and the attainment of perfection. The foremost right of God is to be recognized through contemplation and reflection on His signs, followed by belief in His oneness, gratitude, obedience, and worship. Preserving the environment, protecting plant life, and safeguarding natural resources are among the rights of nature. For instance, a narration from Imam Sadiq (as) states: “Do not cut down trees, for doing so incurs punishment.” In another narration from the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), it is said: “Protect the earth, for it is your mother.” Another hadith prohibits Muslims from releasing toxic and polluting substances even in the lands of polytheists. Thus, environmental protection holds a paramount position in Islam. Animals provide countless benefits to humans, but humans must not exploit them solely for their own benefit while disregarding the rights of animals. In a narration from Imam Sadiq (as), seven rights of animals over humans are outlined: not burden the animal with more than it can bear, not using their backs as a place for conversation, ensuring they are fed upon arrival at a destination, not cauterizing their faces, not striking their faces since they glorify God, ensuring they are watered when reaching water, and not hitting them if they run wild. Other narrations also speak of the rights of birds and insects, including refraining from harming or even speaking ill of them. However, observing the rights of people is fundamentally based on justice and fairness, which means that one should desire for others what they desire for themselves and avoid for others what they avoid for themselves.
The second chapter elucidates the significance of the rights of people in the teachings of the Quran and narrations. The importance of fulfilling these rights in religious teachings is such that, according to Imam Sadiq (as), it is considered the greatest act of worship, while neglecting them is deemed the gravest sin, as stated in a narration from Imam Ali (as). This chapter also discusses the worldly and hereafter consequences of violating people’s rights, highlighting the emphasis placed by the infallible Imams and religious scholars on observing these rights. Examples include the Prophet Muhammad’s sensitivity toward public treasury and safeguarding people’s rights, as well as Imam Hussain’s condition for combatants to clear their debts before joining his cause.
The third chapter categorizes the rights of people based on various criteria, including human relationships (such as individual rights, family and parental rights, societal rights, and the rights of the poor and orphans), age and gender (such as the rights of men, women, children, and the elderly), religion and sect (the rights of Muslims and non-Muslims; a narration from the Prophet Muhammad states: “Whoever oppresses a Dhimmi -protected non muslims under the religion of Islam-, I am his enemy”), education (such as the rights of teachers and students), interpersonal interactions (such as the rights of friends and neighbors; in a narration, the Prophet said: “Whoever believes in God and the Last Day must honor his neighbor”), social status (such as the rights of workers and employers, prisoners and captives; in a narration from Imam Sadiq, it is said: “Pay workers their wages before their sweat dries”; one of the rights of prisoners is refraining from subjecting them to physical or psychological torture), and political considerations (such as the mutual rights of rulers and the people; one of the people’s rights is the equitable distribution of public funds and the right to security and freedom).
The fourth chapter outlines the levels of the rights of people, which are divided into four stages. The first stage is the right to mutual respect and good conduct. In the teachings of the infallible Imams, it is said that smiling at others and alleviating their sorrow are among the duties of believers, and visiting a fellow believer during illness is encouraged. The second stage is the right to service and assistance, emphasizing the importance of serving others and fulfilling the needs of believers; it is said that fulfilling a believer’s need is superior to a thousand accepted pilgrimages. The third stage is the right to defend and protect people’s rights, and the final stage is the right to prevent injustice and harm toward others. This chapter also briefly addresses the misuse of rights, stating that one cannot harm others in the pursuit of their own rights. In this context, the jurisprudential principle of “no harm” (lā ḍarar) is emphasized, along with the importance of justice and fairness, which Islamic ethics upholds even when asserting one’s rights may cause harm to others. In such cases, Islam advises forgiveness and relinquishing those rights and this is the observance of justice and fairness.
The fifth chapter provides a detailed discussion of some of the most important types of the rights of people, including financial rights, reputational rights, and cultural rights. Examples of these rights or violations thereof are elaborated upon. Financial rights are the first category; in Islam and other divine religions, individual ownership is considered essential, and thus, encroaching upon others’ property without permission is impermissible, even within family relationships such as between spouses. Narrations liken the sanctity of people’s property to that of their lives. Misusing public funds or engaging in theft is considered an unforgivable sin, for this reason, during his rule, Imam Ali dismissed an official for betraying the public treasury and demanded the severest punishment for him. He instructed, “Expose him to the people, imprison him, and whip him in public so that it may serve as a lesson for others.” Other examples include poor work performance, delivering low-quality products, and deceiving customers in transactions. Reputational rights are the second category, referring to the harm caused by tarnishing someone’s honor. A narration from the Prophet Muhammad states that dishonoring a believer is worse than usury. Cultural rights are the third category, concerning harm inflicted upon human cultures and societies, such as distorting religious or social culture, wasting people’s time, and engaging in intellectual, literary, or artistic theft.
The sixth chapter outlines methods for repentance concerning the rights of God and people, as well as ways to compensate for violations of these rights. Compensation is contingent upon obtaining the consent of the aggrieved party. While repentance for violations of people’s rights is possible, financial losses must be compensated, and reputational damage must be rectified. Another way to alleviate punishment for such violations is for people to forgive one another. The Quran (5:39) states that those who have wronged others will be forgiven if they repent and make amends. Repentance for violations that do not directly involve people, such as neglecting one’s own rights or the rights of nature and animals, falls under repentance toward God. This involves sincere regret, seeking forgiveness from God, and resolving to reform one’s actions. Additionally, compensatory actions, such as planting a tree to replace one that was cut down, are recommended. God also has rights that must be upheld, and neglecting them requires repentance and restitution, such as failing to follow divine commandments or engaging in prohibited acts.
Hossein Baqeri
Tolou International Institute
