SĪRIH SĪYĀSĪ PAYĀMBAR-E A‘ẒAM. [ THE POLITICAL CONDUCT OF THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD]. A group of researchers. Qom, Iran: Islamic Sciences and Culture Academy. 2008. Pp. 584. Paper. 300,000 IRR
In Islam, the purpose of politics is to guide humanity towards guidance and perfection. The Islamic model of politics and governance is exemplified by the leadership of Prophet Muhammad. His conduct not only serves as a manual for the education and cultivation of humans but also acts as a charter for governance, rule of law, and community welfare.
Many works have been written on this topic; however, studies on the political and governmental conduct of the Prophet are quite rare, so much so that Orientalists have engaged with these subjects more than Muslim scholars themselves.
This work consists of several sections, each functioning as an independent article. In the first section, the author discusses the foundations, general concepts, and theories relevant to the topic. The author begins by outlining the theories of Allameh Tabatabai regarding the foundations of the political conduct of the Prophet. The practical foundations of the Prophet’s conduct encompass three domains: the manners and conduct of the Divine Prophets, the explanation and analysis of the Prophet’s approach in inviting others to Islam, and the political and governmental conduct of the Prophet.
The Prophet’s manners and conduct are rooted in divine oneness, social unity, avoidance of pretense in religious invitations, faith in the fundamental principles of theology and divine laws, respectful dialogue with people, speaking at their level of understanding, employing truthful means, and avoiding false and misleading approaches. During challenging times of the Islamic invitation, God commanded the Prophet to practice gentleness, moderation, and gradualism in the call to Islam. This gentleness and moderation are categorized in three dimensions: the content of the invitation, the recipients of the invitation, and the stages of the call.
The discussion then shifts to the anthropological foundations of the Prophet’s political conduct. The Prophet emphasized two principles: the liberation of individuals from humiliation and subjugation, and the principles of equality and equity. His political conduct aimed at removing any shackles from the neck of individuals in the Age of Ignorance to restore human dignity. Furthermore, due to humanity’s esteemed status with God—being capable of being God’s vicegerent on Earth—individuals are granted unique dignity and value. The Prophet’s political and governmental conduct created the conditions necessary for the emergence and flourishing of human virtues.
The principles governing the ethical-political conduct of the Prophet are subsequently outlined, including: the focus on God, the centrality of human dignity and honor, the principle of justice, the principle of compassion and mercy, the principle of consultation and participatory governance, the principle of honoring commitments, and the principle of competence. The author then addresses the political currents during the Prophetic state. The principal factors and reasons for the emergence of various movements include specific interpretations and understandings of religious concepts, tribal and ethnic prejudices, fears regarding the rise of rival factions, and the pursuit of power.
Several movements existed during the Prophet’s rulership, such as the Muhajirun (emigrants), the Ansar (helpers), the Banu Umayyah, and the Banu Hashim. The Muhajirun accepted the principle of Islam but sought leadership for themselves, while the Ansar held a similar stance. The Banu Umayyah rejected Islam and opposed it, claiming leadership as their right. The Banu Abbas were indifferent toward Islam and were primarily focused on attaining leadership, whereas the Banu Hashim valued the leadership of the Imams of Shi’ism and would act toward securing leadership when society was prepared for it.
The author continues to analyze the political currents in the Prophetic state. Upon the establishment of the Prophet’s government in Medina, three political factions emerged against it: the disbelievers and polytheists from Mecca, the Jews, and the hypocrites. The military conduct of the Prophet is subsequently outlined. Historical records indicate that the Prophet demonstrated exceptional military leadership. Essential aspects of this leadership included the Prophet being a unique designer of military doctrines of his time, leading in battle ahead of his soldiers, equipping forces with advanced weaponry, and achieving significant psychological victories.
The author then discusses the security principles of the Prophet articulated in the Quran. The most critical elements related to security include peace-seeking and avoiding fanaticism in dealing with opponents, fighting warmongers and sowers of discord, avoiding despotism and coercion, opposing tyranny, prohibiting obedience to tyrants, adhering to covenants and confronting covenant-breakers, observing divine laws, balancing flexibility with decisiveness, establishing justice and equity, and responding to the needs of the poor and the marginalized.
Following this, the foreign policy theory during the Prophetic state is examined. Contrary to some Orientalists who perceive violence as the essence of Islamic relations with other religions, this work aims to strip Islam of any association with violence or war through an analysis of the Prophet’s foreign policy. The conclusion supports that the Prophet maintained a compassionate view of the world, striving for amicable relations even with polytheists.
The section further explores the notion of justice within the Prophetic state. The primary goal of sending prophets was the establishment of justice, necessitating active involvement from people to realize it. The Prophet emphasized justice in various spheres, including economic, political, judicial, and cultural realms.
In the second section, the author addresses the model dimensions and educational aspects of the Prophet’s domestic policy. Initially, the characteristics of officials in the Prophetic government are elucidated, such as correcting one’s relationship with God, emphasizing compassion and love, possessing an open heart, being competent, avoiding the desire for authority, prioritizing divine obedience, upholding discipline and diligence, making decisions, honoring agreements, preventing misuse among affiliates, mutual advising and constructive criticism, seeking truth, and establishing justice.
The author then assesses the relationship between power and Islamic law in the Prophet’s conduct, noting that this relationship is dictated by Islamic law. The Quran indicates that Islamic law is political, affirming that decision-making and commands belong solely to God. The overarching principles of Islamic law aim to realize justice, freedom, and political guidance, necessitating the establishment of a political system to achieve these goals.
Next, the author discusses the relationship between religion and politics in Islam. Prominent Islamic thinkers advocate that religion is intertwined with politics in Islam, arguing that the Prophet’s establishment of government in Medina was part of his mission. However, some Muslims advocate for Islamic secularism, denying the link between religion and politics in Islam. Nevertheless, an analysis of the Prophet’s conduct reveals an inseparable connection between religion and politics.
The author continues with the foundational principles of the Prophetic state, highlighting the importance of monotheism and justice. The nature of the Prophetic state and its distinction from modern states is discussed, where the Prophet is seen as a representative of God, with his mission being a divine appointment. As a messenger, he fulfills three roles: religious preaching, adjudication, and political leadership within the Islamic community.
Subsequently, the political structure of the Prophetic state is analyzed. The Prophet established governance in Medina, transitioning from a phase of preaching to founding an Islamic state, with one of his initial political and cultural endeavors being the appointment of twelve representatives from among the Muslims of Yathrib to expand the influence of Islam in the region. The most significant event of the Prophet was the establishment of the government in Medina.
The author then discusses the distribution of power within the Prophetic state, wherein the Prophet, while recognizing the political and economic structures of tribes and the spoils of war, also relied on another significant source known as land. In doing so, he aimed to integrate the tribes within the governmental framework while respecting their customs, as their only condition for participating in the state was their faith in the new ideals. Alongside his divine legitimacy, the Prophet acknowledged the tribes’ customs and traditions when delineating and distributing power.
In essence, the Prophet established a federal state where the tribes enjoyed political, economic, and even cultural rights, provided these did not conflict with Islamic laws. By acknowledging the tribes’ power within their specific geographical areas and confirming their leaders, the Prophet managed to maintain control over the Islamic territory while ensuring some limitation on their power without it being entirely unrestricted.
The discourse then delves into the political authority of the Prophet, emphasizing that true authority does not inherently belong to anyone, and the only legitimate means of authority is through divine appointment. Textual evidence confirms that the Prophet held this authority during his lifetime. His authority extends beyond political confines, encompassing a broader universal application.
The author explains the leadership role in the Islamic state from the perspectives of Imam Ali and Al-Farabi. Analyzing the statements from Nahj al-Balagha and Al-Farabi reveals that the leadership role within the Prophetic state holds considerable significance. The next topic includes an examination of the titles of Prophethood, religious law, and their interrelations, as articulated by various Islamic thinkers, including Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Mulla Sadra, and Allameh Tabatabai.
The discourse subsequently addresses the Constitution of Medina and the security matters within the Prophetic state. Initial laws regarding relations between the Muhajirun and Ansar are delineated, followed by discussions on regulations governing relationships with Jews and polytheists. The foremost component of unity under the Constitution of Medina centered on Islamic teachings, which encompassed strengthening the community’s monotheistic inclination and creating a shared belief in God, thus resulting in obedience to the Messenger of God.
This obedience forms the primary outcome of the monotheistic belief, establishing the foundational principle of unity. As a result, the Muslims, along with the Jews and polytheists of Medina, found themselves part of this united community. Undoubtedly, the Prophet’s initiative in founding this unified community is among the most significant reasons for his success in establishing a new civilization.
The author further discusses the importance of consultation and advisory processes within the Prophet’s government, particularly noting that consultation applies to worldly affairs rather than religious matters. The Quran indicates, through the principle of consultation, that the public’s right to engage in political and social issues is acknowledged and does not conflict with the Prophet’s absolute authority.
The text also explores the concept of justice in the Prophet’s conduct, emphasizing that establishing justice and equality was one of his mission’s primary aims, highlighting instances of social justice in his conduct, including non-discrimination in law enforcement, equitable treatment of enemies in war, and respect for people’s rights.
The notion of allegiance and political loyalty during the Prophetic era is also explicated. In this context, allegiance served as a means of expressing loyalty and didn’t indicate the granting of authority and governance. However, to sustain order, the Prophet’s government actively engaged in numerous tasks across various domains: political, military, security, and economic. These functions were critical for the effective execution and organization of government programs. Some core functions of the government established by the Prophet included human development and giving meaning to human existence, fostering social cohesion, constructing identities based on the Islamic community, and establishing social justice.
In the third section, the foreign policy of the Prophetic state is examined. Initially, the methods of engagement with dissenters and critics within the Prophet’s government are discussed. The Prophet based the foundation of his authority on divine laws and Islamic justice, never veering from fairness and justice in his dealings with opponents. Unlike tyrants and kings, he avoided antagonistic approaches with people and adversaries, seizing opportunities to mitigate tensions between his government and dissenters, including pagans and Jews, with military action being his last resort.
The author elaborates on the foreign policy of the Prophetic state, which aligned with the mission’s goals and aimed to convey Islam to the world. This endeavor included sending letters to the kings of Persia and Rome. Furthermore, the criteria for relationships with outsiders are specified, emphasizing friendliness and cooperation rather than conflict and warfare. The author presents Quranic and narrational evidence, explaining the limits and nature of the relationships Muslims should maintain, including the stipulation that Muslims should not appoint them as lord.
The rights of minorities within the Prophetic government are also clarified, with attention given to various aspects of their rights in economic, security, cultural, and social contexts. Islam prohibits oppression against minorities and establishes guiding principles such as fidelity to covenants, justice, human dignity, and the negation of tyranny. The author addresses the challenges faced by the Islamic government during the Prophetic era, identifying significant vulnerabilities in the realms of politics, economy, culture, and society. Issues include alterations in laws governing the selection of successors, changes in the lifestyle of rulers, the allocation of public funds, the suppression of the freedom of expression, the emergence of ethnic and tribal biases, and the erosion of the principle of legal supremacy, while disregarding justice and equality.
Scientific Critique
- Depth of Analysis: While the text attempts to present the political conduct of the Prophet Muhammad based on reputable sources, it requires deeper analytical insight. Understanding the historical and social contexts in which these practices developed would enhance the comprehension of their meanings and objectives.
- Diversity of Sources: Relying on a limited number of texts may not provide a comprehensive perspective. The author could benefit from integrating additional Islamic sources, such as contemporary scholars’ interpretations and analyses by historians and political scientists.
- **Relevance to Contemporary Issues**: The text should emphasize how the Prophet’s political practices could address contemporary Islamic political issues. Discussing practical implications and adapting historical theories to current social frameworks can add significant value to the writing.
Practical Critique
- Applicability: Although the ideas presented are valuable, the author could offer practical solutions and specific guidance for Muslims to implement these teachings in their daily lives.
- Clarity and Language: The language used might be perplexing for some readers. Simplifying sentences and utilizing clearer structures would enhance understanding, especially for those less familiar with economic or Islamic concepts.
- Cross-Cultural Dialogue: Highlighting economic perspectives from different cultures could enrich the discussion. Presenting tangible examples from other civilizations can demonstrate how the teachings of the Prophet can be compared and analyzed within various economic systems.
